PE&RS January 2000

Highlight Article: An Approach to the Development of a Sustainable National Geomatics Infrastructure
Robert A. Ryerson and Robert J. Batterham

Introduction

This paper describes an approach to performing a situational analysis and process for program design for the development of a national geomatics infrastructure. It has evolved from contracts performed by the authors to meet the development objectives related to a range of needs from modernization to post-conflict geomatics development. The approach can be used to either plan a proposed program, or as a checklist to evaluate an existing geomatics program or project.

The Geomatics Problem Definition

In the core study used as the basis for this paper, we were given the task of designing a program that would lead to the production of maps and the creation of a geospatial database at a sufficient scale or resolution to specifically support the geo-information needs of the agencies involved in mine action in Mozambique. A detailed set of objectives and broad terms of reference were provided. While the post-conflict situation carries with it some very special requirements, intelligent planning and forethought can result in a geomatics program that will also meet traditional needs, as well as the more specialized requirements. In the base study, the problem is much more complex than a simple modernization of a national mapping program.

The need for better geospatial data was complicated by the presence of land mines throughout the country studied. Quite simply, land mines dominated decision making and economic development at all levels. A further complication was the absence, due to fluctuating levels of colonial and foreign assistance over the years, of a full national map series and information relating to its accuracy and currency.

The anticipated results of the planned project were:
1. a reduction in the threat to human life and livelihood;
2. the creation of an enabling and safe environment to permit the resumption of economic activities leading to improved economic growth;
3. a reduction in the burden of land mine-related injuries on an overburdened and underdeveloped health care system;
4. improved access to basic services (health, education, water) and,
5. improved reconstruction of and access to rural infrastructure.

The terms of reference for the consultants’ mission stated that the project’s outputs “…should be able to be used in a variety of important applications suitable for social, environmental, and economic planning. Examples include: land management and reform; environmental monitoring, management, and protection; infrastructure management; agriculture and natural resources management, development, and planning; and, transportation on land, at sea, and in the air.”

The balance of this paper outlines the basic steps required for the development of a national geomatics or geospatial infrastructure. We do so by detailing our decision-making approach and the type of analysis that must be brought to bear with respect to the assessment of geomatics needs to achieve success in the developmental context. The approach presented is applicable virtually anywhere in the developing world or in emerging economies where a new or renewed geomatics infrastructure is required. Subsequent sections describe the general considerations related to geomatics for the type of analysis required in a post-conflict, economic recovery or post-disaster situation. These can be regarded as simply more complex subsets of what are required for a modernization program.

To build a successful program we must consider a number of factors: client’s needs and desires (some desires are not true needs); an assessment of the recipient country’s capabilities in terms of meeting those needs; an assessment of related activity by other donors; an assessment of current technology and its direction; donor country capabilities and capacity if the aid is tied; and, costs.

The first step in any program development is the specification of requirements for the consultant(s) performing the evaluation and program design. Our approach begins with the definition of a clear set of guiding principles that control the entire activity. These are the cornerstones upon which the rest of the analysis is based.

The next step involves a detailed and comprehensive situational analysis followed by an assessment of the needs of the country in general. Each situational analysis is different. The analysis usually includes an evaluation of the political and administrative environment, the constraints of geography, the identification of the agency(ies) destined to implement and be the principle recipient of the technical assistance. Needs are clearly separated from wants, and from what we term “extraneous misconceptions” –which often result from external pressures. These can be as simple as pressure from donors, for example, who wish to press the case for commercial solutions from their particular country solutions that may or may not be suitable for the recipient. They may be more subtle staff in a given agency may be swayed by former colleagues or what has been accomplished elsewhere. More direct pressures may come from vendors of products and services.

The next steps in the situational analysis involve the assembly of information from a variety of sources before visiting the country; on-the-ground in-country assessments; and discussions with those agencies and individuals with significant interest and experience in the country or similar situations in other countries. This information is then combined with an assessment of what is already available in terms of a technical solution, what solutions are available that will meet the needs of the major clients, and lastly (and perhaps most importantly) what is likely to work in the country being evaluated.

The final, and sometimes most difficult, step is building a consensus on the approach among the various agencies operating in the recipient country. This is often best accomplished at a stakeholder meeting. Kalensky and Latham (1998) provide a useful approach to developing an environmental information system that is relevant in this context. The over-riding goal is to define an activity that is likely to result in a self-sustaining capability that will be used within the country to the benefit of the country’s citizens.

Geospatial Data: An Essential Tool for Development

Developed countries do not have good maps because they are developed, they are developed because they have good maps.¹

(¹Paraphrase of a remark by Prof. Dr. Arthur J. Brandenberger, Consultant to the United Nations and Professor, Laval University. See ISPRS Lausanne, 1968; Photogrammetric Engineering. April 1969.)

A number of authors have suggested that one of the major elements in the successful development of a country is the possession of good maps. While such a statement may ascribe somewhat more importance to map makers and their craft than we would agree with, the fact is that successful development is not possible without an accurate and comprehensive geospatial data base. Today we more frequently use the descriptor ‘geospatial’ or ‘geomatics data base’ in place of ‘maps’ to reflect the change that has occurred with the advent of computerization in mapping technology. The creation and use of digital maps is increasingly easier, faster, and of lower cost in developing countries than the alternative paper maps. Furthermore, they are easier to update, more flexible in their use, and more accurate.

Without a high quality geospatial data base (increasingly, but not necessarily, digital in today’s world) one cannot effectively and in a coherent manner plan roads, monitor the environment, develop agriculture, react to disasters, provide for privatization of land ownership, clean up the aftermath of war, etc.

Following a major cross-border conflict, internal strife, major economic dislocation, or natural disaster there is often the need for rapid action on the part of aid and development agencies to alleviate human suffering and foster development. These same conflicts, disasters, and economic dislocations which require good geospatial data for their amelioration often complicate the map-making environment. They result in major changes that are not captured in the existing map infrastructure such as population movements, abandonment or relocation of villages (and their associated place names) urban growth, name changes, destruction of roads, a reduction in map updating, loss of the map data base, loss of records, and destruction of the land survey fabric.

An important consideration in the use of geomatics data is how freely such information is disseminated. In the past, the information, in the form of maps, was often held within military organizations and was treated as a state secret. This veil of secrecy is slowly being lifted for two reasons. First, with the technology available, anyone (friend or foe) can make credible maps from readily available satellite imagery. Secondly, and more importantly, many developing country agencies are beginning to see that power and strength is in the distribution of good information, not in retaining it within their own organization. This is a major and fundamental shift for information agencies in developing countries (and indeed for many in developed countries as well). All too many see the retention of the information as their power base, when the exact opposite is true.

Guiding Principles

One of the keys to providing a realistic and workable solution is to ensure that a set of guiding principles is identified and followed throughout the evaluation. The first four principles in this work are laid out below. In addition there may be others, depending upon the requirements of the funding agency, the recipients, or other stakeholders. These can range from promoting the donor country’s industry to building a private sector capability in the recipient country. The key is that these principles should be clearly identified, agreed upon by all stakeholders, and rigorously followed. In addition, there should be a clear description of the beneficiaries, costs, time line, and project management considerations. The guiding principles might include items such as:

1. Client Focus –The ‘client’ is the demining community. Other parties are involved in development and their needs should be taken into consideration only insofar as they are compatible with those of the specified authority.
2. Sustainability –The work must lead to capacity building and a self-sustaining capability. This implies a significant training activity.
3. Jurisdiction –Agency responsibilities under local law are to be recognized at all times in the project execution.
4. Program Coordination –The program must be coordinated with other donor and International Financial Institution (IFI) activity to avoid duplication and needless expenditure of scarce resources – human and financial.

A number of other guiding principles may be identified depending on the specific situation addressed. Experienced consultants would typically work with the in-country authorities and the donor agency to help specify these.

The Situation

Information Collection

The situational analysis must describe the situation as it is – not as the consultants, the recipient country or donor might wish it to be. At the same time, there must be some consideration paid to the sensitivities of the recipient, donor, other donors, and the international financial institutions that may be involved. For a program to gain approval, acceptance, and support, a range of stakeholders must “buy-in.” Without a comprehensive and well-planned data collection activity there will be gaps in information, the possibility of errors, and, in the face of such errors, acceptance is almost impossible to achieve. The first priority is to obtain accurate information. The information is then brought together to form a comprehensive situational analysis in the context of the national need.

Pre-Mission Data Collection

The analysis must begin with data and information collection before visiting the country. This information sets the stage. Even for those countries with which consultants have some familiarity, a rigorous pre-mission data collection should be undertaken. This is because, in a post-conflict or post-disaster environment in particular, the situation can change dramatically and quickly. In the case of Mozambique, information from a visit six weeks prior to that of the authors was found to be outdated. For the Mozambique study we obtained maps, read available material, discussed the situation with the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) in Canada, and contacted those with expertise at the various development banks, UN agencies, and those who had recently visited Mozambique. Before leaving for Mozambique, our contacts ranged from UN consultants and former UN employees to university professors experienced in East Africa, military advisors, and aid workers. In addition, we sought out guidebooks and used the Internet to establish contacts with those who would be likely to have useful information and experience. E-mail was used to set up several meetings in Maputo before departure, and to target areas for more detailed questioning during the mission.

Before leaving for in-country data collection, we typically speak with a variety of people to develop a sketch of what to expect, and what questions remain. From these various sources we develop a picture of the country in question, while retaining an open mind.

In-Country Data Collection

A series of visits should be organized with the various stakeholders, whether the affected community, international financial institutions, the map users, other donors, or those involved in producing the maps.

In Mozambique, the client was the demining community. We had to determine how those in that community functioned – the institutional relationships and operational activities, what their geomatics needs were, their capacity to use geospatial data, what systems they had, what data they had, what data they needed, and where they saw the gaps in capacity, data, and human resources. The same sort of assessments must be made for each primary user, whether in demining, disaster mitigation, or modernization of a geomatics program. Both those involved in disasters and mine action staff exhibit a passion for the importance of their work. Similarly, in modernization programs the mapping agencies are usually fully aware of the importance of their work, although they often lack the ability to communicate this importance to the political and hence financial level. The role of donors must be clearly understood. In one project we found that the international agencies and donors working in the country included the UN; World Bank; Canadian, American, Swedish, Norwegian, and French assistance. All were working in geomatics. With a firm grasp on geospatial data needs and other donor activities, one can then concentrate on the geomatics sector – from university programs to national mapping activities.

During the meetings with the mapping agencies the consultants must determine national, provincial, and local capacity to undertake geomatics projects in support of domestic needs, the level of technology available, and the capacity of human resources to absorb increased technical, administrative, and managerial demands. Lines of inquiry usually then focus on organizational flexibility, political stability, physical constraints (building and physical plant as well as hardware, software and equipment), power supply, environmental conditions, and availability of a suitably educated and trained labor force and management team. From a specific technical standpoint the suitability of the introduction of higher levels of technology and use of GPS, GIS, digital mapping and image analysis can be measured against the in-situ conditions. Very specific inquiries should be made related to the legal and administrative procedures involved in the acquisition and processing of aerial photography whether or not a new mapping or photography program is indicated. Of equal concern is the status of the geodetic network and the in-country capability to further develop it.

Rather than prepare a topical assessment (the state of GIS, the state of equipment, the suitability of buildings, photogrammetric equipment, list of donor activities, etc.), we assess the capabilities, the potential for growth, related donor activities with which we are familiar, and state-of-the art for each geomatics-related data need. By so doing we believe that we truly deliver a needs-driven report based on intelligent analysis in addition to a simple inventory.

In one assignment we found that the national maps were in exceedingly poor condition and provided inadequate coverage of the country. The national map series at 1:50,000 had been commenced under colonial rule with post-colonial assistance coming from a number of countries. The sad legacy of this situation included missing data, original materials of some maps being kept overseas, and a generally inaccurate and incomplete map series. While we identified a significant need for improved geospatial data in the country for mine action and other uses by the government, donor agencies and an emerging industrial sector, others believed that a lower cost solution (scanning existing maps) was satisfactory. In effect, different donors and experts with differing levels of developmental experience will often offer different solutions that may make sense at home, but perhaps not in the field. We believe that following the guidelines laid down here will result in viable programs that meet real needs, and greatly reduce the chance that an inappropriate solution will be suggested.

In many cases there is a great deal of donor interest in, need for, and support of a variety of geospa-tial programs. We have seen some countries where there are as many as five different donors contributing, almost in a competitive manner with each other. Often the result is a great disparity in the quality and design of geospatial databases from one government agency to another – depending upon a combination of the donor and the local patron. Even if there are no political reasons for lack of co-operation, in many cases the different systems cannot ‘talk’ to each other.

Other problems associated with mapping can be caused by equally mundane but more easily understood physical challenges such as persistent cloud cover precluding the acquisition of aerial photography, or floods, land-slides or volcanic eruptions removing local monuments, or causing significant topographic and cultural disturbance. Another issue we have encountered comes with years of civil war and movement of people. Geographic place names can change (and in some cases even be moved with the people who were dislocated as a result of the conflict), complicating mapping and, for example, the identification of mined areas.

While co-ordination is not always well developed between internal programs, it can and does exist in many developing countries. In this sense, inter-ministerial co-operation (or lack of it) is almost as frequently encountered in the so-called developed countries as in the less developed countries. Co-ordination between externally funded programs typically vary by donor but in developing countries there is usually a willingness among most authorities and most donors to co-operate for the greater good of the country. However, such co-operation should never be assumed.

There is one other positive common factor that one encounters almost the world over: mapmakers typically share an enthusiasm for the work they do. We have seen this in virtually all of the 30 countries in which we have worked over the past 15 years.

Post Mission Data Collection

Data collection does not usually end upon the return from a country visit. After the mission several questions usually remain with respect to the technical solutions, donor activity, access to donor-funded data sets, and further information about data resident in-country has to be collected and the findings synthesized into a situation report. An example of such a report follows. At this time there may also be changes in what the donor wishes to accomplish. Any such changes at this stage of the work may render redundant much of what has gone before. For that reason it is again underlined that the pre-planning discussed in the previous sections is critical to the success of the activity.

The Situation Report

Geomatics is obviously closely tied to the geography of a country. That geography must be well understood if a sensible geomatics program is to be developed. In Mozambique, understanding that geography requires a brief history of mine action activities. In Bang-ladesh, everything revolves around floods. In China, flooding causes billions of dollars of damage each year, while periodically earthquakes wreak havoc and devastation. In the Caribbean and Central America, hurricanes dominate local thinking. In the Philippines, a range of natural disasters affect the country – from volcanoes to violent weather, and their aftermath. In Mongolia, snow and cold weather is a critical factor. In other countries it is the threat of border conflicts. A great deal of comprehensive information can be found in a variety of sources such as would be consulted for the original background study report and as has been discussed above. That information; however, must be interpreted in the context of the problem at hand.

In most of the studies we have done a comprehensive situation report has been prepared. That report uses factual material, anecdotal evidence, observations, case studies, problem definition and, where appropriate, local history. Obviously, all sources should be verified and field visits are essential. Below we have reproduced parts of a situation report on Mozambique to illustrate the sort of information that typical-ly should be incorporated to allow consultants, and those who would use the consultants report, to better understand the situation. Judge for yourself the impact of our report. If you come away with the idea that land mines dominate almost every aspect of life in Mozambique, then our situation report has had the desired impact.

Mozambique – A Legacy of War: Geographic Background of the Situation in a Post-Conflict Setting²

(²Note: this material was prepared in October 1998. While the situation in Mozambique has changed considerably since this was written, no attempt has been made to update this section.)

Mozambique has a total area of 801,590 square kilometers, of which 17,500 is water. Its border totals 4,571 kilometers, with a coastline of 2,470 kilometers. Estimates of arable land vary quite widely depending on the source consulted – from 4% to almost 20%. Forested land is about 18%, while permanent pasture is estimated at 56%. There is but limited irrigation. The total population was estimated to be 18.2 million in 1997. The population is concentrated in the south and coastal areas, with considerable migration having occurred to these areas during the civil war. The country is one of the poorest in Africa, but it has great potential resources in agriculture and perhaps in minerals and energy once the aftermath of the decades-long turmoil can be overcome. Japanese interests are currently involved in a mineral exploration activity in the northwest and natural gas has been found in the south. The climate is tropical to sub-tropical. The country is subject to floods, droughts, and cyclones. There is persistent cloud cover over approximately two thirds of the two northern provinces bordering on Tanzania. The entire country is considered to be a malarial zone, with significant risk for most tropical diseases. The major language is Portuguese, although English is well understood at senior technical and professional levels as well as in the handful of western hotels in the capital, Maputo. Travel in the hinterlands and fieldwork is still considered to be dangerous because of land mines and limited banditry. Areas surrounding survey monuments were often mined.

Mozambique, with an estimated one to two million land mines, is one of the most heavily mined countries in the world. Land mines represent a serious threat to the rural population and a significant obstacle to post-war reconstruction and sustainable development. Land mines not only pose a threat to human life, they also prevent economic development, obstruct trade routes, roads, road improvements, and restrict agricultural production. Fear of mined areas (or areas simply perceived to be mined) results in them not being used by an entire community, whether it is for a school, a road, a clinic, a well, or an agricultural field. Treatment of land mine survivors also causes a considerable drain on the already strained national health care system. In the city of Maputo, it is almost impossible to travel more than a few city blocks without seeing amputees.

Following the October 1992 signing of the Peace Accord in Rome, mine clearance became essential to end the emergency situation and facilitate the distribution of humanitarian assistance and the movement of people, particularly the internally displaced and returnees. In this context, high priority was given to the removal of mines from key roads, with assistance from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and a number of other donors and organizations. A Mine Clearance Technical Unit was created, a UNDP-supported Accelerated Demining Program (ADP) was established and a start was made on the training of Mozambique demining personnel at various levels.

Emphasis has now shifted from addressing emergency priorities to assisting the process of rehabilitation and reconstruction. This new emphasis involves the co-ordination of all activities related to humanitarian demining under a mine action program. ‘Mine action’ refers to all activities that reduce the social, economic, and environmental impacts of land contaminated by mines, unexploded ordinance, and other hazardous debris of war. It is an integrated and holistic approach that involves education and training, advocacy, victim assistance and rehabilitation, survey, marking and clearance, and the development of professional standards and tools (e.g. maps) aimed at improving mine action activities.

At present, there are three main organizations involved in mine action in Mozambique. These are Norwegian Peoples Aid (NPA) which centers its efforts in the central provinces; HALO Trust (a British mine specialist nongovernmental organization [NGO] formed primarily from retired military personnel) with operations in the northern provinces, and UNDP/ADP which is undertaking operations in the three southern provinces. In addition, Handicap International (HI), a France/Belgium based NGO, has a mandate to promote and implement mine awareness efforts and activities throughout the country. Furthermore, there are a number of private sector mine clearance companies performing activities under direct contract with the Government of Mozambique. A number of donor countries and agencies are involved. The extent of their operations is outlined in the UN document on Mozambique and land mines in the references. Since the publication of this report a number of other donors have begun programs related to the actual demining. For example Japan and the USA have just begun a $2 million joint effort to remove mines in the vicinity of a major dam. Details of these activities can be found in recent newsletters of the National Demining Commission (CND). The complexity of demining in Mozambique cannot be overstated. There are many players whose contributions change over time – some increasing while others are decreasing. Coordination of these many efforts is not an easy task.

In 1995, the need to establish a sustainable local capacity to oversee and coordinate these efforts was recognized with the creation of, at the Ministerial level, the National Mine Clearance Commission (NMCC) and its secretariat, the CND. The CND is uniquely structured with high level political involvement. The Commission is chaired by the Minister of Foreign Affairs and includes the Ministers of Home Affairs, Defense, Public Works and Housing, Commerce and Tourism, and Agriculture and Fisheries. This is, in effect, almost a committee of the whole of the Cabinet.

A significant issue is that the magnitude of the mine problem remains ill defined. Without the basic definition of the mine problem, it has been impossible to compile a national priority and work plan to direct mine action activities. International experience has proved that the existence of reliable information, such as surveys and updated maps for minefield recording, and planning of mine action operations, are essential to the success of any mine action program. To date, there have been two issues. First, the necessary information including, but not limited to, adequate maps, has not existed. Second, even if such information had existed, it is not clear to some observers that the CND has had the capacity to provide this information to mine action groups. The absence of these fundamental tools has led to mine action efforts being unfocused, subject to duplication, and not being as effective and efficient as they might have been in promoting the economic and social recovery of Mozambique.

As in all such investigations there is a tendency to quantify the problem in numerical terms – how much and how many – in order to measure both its impact and the required level of effort to solve it. This is altogether too simplistic a manner in which to measure the effect that land mines have on the people of Mozambique. The number of mines in the country, which has been estimated to be anywhere between one million and two million, should not be construed as an accurate reflection of the magnitude of the problem. If in future the estimate is reduced to half that, it will not lessen the severity of the situation. The insidiousness of the land mine problem and irrelevance of the actual number of mines can be seen from the following four cases.

Case 1. 60 kilometers of road was not being used because it was known to have been mined. People traveled over tracks many times the length of the road to avoid it. When it was cleared, it was found that there was but one anti-tank mine along the 60-kilometer length of road. That one mine denied the use of the entire road to the local population for some years.
Case 2. A prime area once settled and farmed by the local population was no longer inhabited or being used. It was known to have been mined during the years of conflict. When the area was eventually cleared only eight land mines were found. This area now supports and is home to 10,000 people pursuing agricultural activities.
Case 3. One demining expert told the authors that as land is cleared of mines and the ‘safe zone’ is identified, the civilian population will move to the edge of the safe zone and begin farming virtually immediately. The safe zone is usually identified to within an accuracy of one or two meters, with a margin of error of ten meters when staked out on the ground. People will not move inside the area if the area has only been mechanically cleared of mines. It requires manual techniques, probing every few centimeters of ground with non-metallic probes and sweeping with a metal detector before there is sufficient confidence for the local population to move in. In effect, human feet must have walked over every square centimeter of the land before the local populace has sufficient confidence in to re-inhabit the land.
Case 4. In one recent case, demining personnel took sketch maps to the mined area to be cleared. It is not clear whether they took the wrong sketch maps, or oriented them incorrectly when once in the field. The result was that the mine field location was moved 180 degrees. The safe zone from which the mine clearance personnel worked was actually the minefield, and the area they were clearing was actually the safe zone. We were told “this would not have happened had they had aerial photographs to support their field activities.”
These cases underline several key factors in addressing the land mine problem in Mozambique:

• many land mines are distributed in a haphazard fashion to deny the civilian population access to infrastructure and food production – there is rarely a pattern;
• mine clearance is especially dangerous when there are few mines. When clearance personnel work for days without finding a mine, this results in a false sense of security, errors, and occasionally death. Typically four (of over 4000) deminers die per year in Mozambique;
• while the number of mines is one measure of the problem, another is the area affected by land mines or the rumor of land mines;
• there is tremendous pent-up demand for agricultural land;
• building new roads and the rehabilitation of roads (including widening) all require extensive demining efforts;
• the people trust the deminers, most of whom are now Mozambican;
• positional accuracy of the location of the safe zones and mined areas to a few meters is very important; and
• additional information such as can be obtained from aerial photography would be very useful.

Needs Analysis

The next step in the study process is the needs analysis. The needs will be driven by several factors, only one of which is driven by the recipient country. Donors, international decisions, and the like all play an important role. For exam-ple, under the terms of the memorandum of understanding (MOU) between Canada and Mozambique, all of the project funding must be used to enhance the demining effort. This means that the primary client of this program is the demining community. This includes the national coordinating body, all of the donor agencies, relevant local bodies and the commercial demining operators. The central coordinating body, at the time of the original report, was the CND, the embodiment of that community. There are, however, many additional clients, principally the national mapping agency, the national remote sensing agency, and other clients ranging from the Ministry of Finance and Planning to the Resource Ministries. Each has a slightly different need.

What is then required is the clear definition of needs for each of a number of clients. We usually identify the key needs based on the information collected during the mission. We begin to identify these needs during the early part of the mission through discussions with the client community. In the case of Mozambique, this was the demining community. It should be noted that there are two demining communities. One is involved in planning and coordination, and the other in operations – removing mines. Not surprisingly, their needs are somewhat different in terms of level of information required.

Basic Information Needs Specific to Demining³

(³It should be noted that in this section all items appearing in quotations are direct quotes from those interviewed in Mozambique.)

In the case of Mozambique, a number of needs were identified and for each a one-paragraph explanation was given. A similar approach to needs definition for a variety of other applications (or countries) would result in another needs list, likely with a format driven by the specific requirements of the key users. Only the bare outline is given here for the Mozambique example. Obviously, if we were preparing a similar outline for other countries it would reflect their needs and the findings of the on-site investigation.

1. 1. Level I Survey tied to a digital topographic database (a Level I Survey is a standard approach to initial in-situ, post conflict data gathering according to UN-specified procedures);
2. 2. improved toponymy or place-name database to locate information from the Level I Survey;
3. 3. development of a fast, flexible co-operation mechanism for data sharing that takes into account national issues;
4. 4. elevation data “would be fantastic;”
5. 5. for operations, a map base at 1:50,000 is needed for the major mined areas and development areas such as new roads, dams, corridor rights-of-way, mineral exploration, engineering, and others. These would be used for minefield navigation and clearing;
6. 6. for operations a map base “capable of depicting mine fields to 2 -10 meter accuracy;”
7. 7. a map base suitable for planning and operations, each of which has different needs (“a map base at 1:250,000 is suitable for strategy, but 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 is best for operations.”)
8. 8. a digital map base to allow for the integration of information in a GIS as a decision support system (for planning and operations);
9. 9. geomatics training (technical and management) – some in Portuguese;
10. 10. hardware and software;
11. 11. institutional strengthening;
12. 12. technical support in geomatics within the demining community;
13. 13. “operational and fast turn-around” of data in “standard formats” regardless of how they were developed (satellite or aircraft);
14. 14. early delivery of air photos (“we could use aerial photographs very effectively,” “NPA now uses air photos”);
15. 15. perhaps “image maps may be useful if they are prepared with demining in mind;” and,
16. 16. data compatible with existing Map-Info and Microsoft Access Database software.

Almost one-half of the items above (all but items 1, 5, 6,7, 12, 14, 15 and 16) were also cited by the mapping community. (Items 5 and 6 are actually more specific cases of a general requirement in mapping and its application: a 1:50,000 database suitable for developmental planning.)

Items cited only by the geomatics community included:

1. 1. improvement of the geodetic network;
2. 2. 1:50,000 mapping in Niassa and Cabo Delgado Provinces (areas not yet covered by 1:50,000 maps);
3. 3. digital mapping training, software, and hardware;
4. 4. workshop on applications of the planned database for other user agencies;
5. 5. repair/upgrade of photogrammetric equipment;
6. 6. repair/upgrade of photo-lab equipment;
7. 7. access to supplies (paper, inks, etc.); and,
8. 8. information for national planning (agriculture, land reform, roads, environment, etc.)

Proposed Solutions

If the research to this point has been thorough, the easiest part of the work is proposing the technical solution. The central part of the project proposed should respond to the needs of the community as identified above. In the case of demining in Mozambique, there are two demining communities – thus one might reasonably expect that the ideal solution might be somewhat different depending upon which aspect is seen as most important. It should also be noted that the needs of the community, or the perception of how to meet these needs, might well change as the concept develops.

The other factor that enters into any proposed solution is what funds are available for this geomatics program. Often it will be necessary to choose, according to Mine Action priorities in the Mozambique case, or in terms of food security and flood risk management in Bangla-desh, the areas of most value to be mapped. The products and services delivered to the client, and in some cases co-developed by the clients, should be specified. The most difficult part of the work is developing the management plan, linkages between various elements, and human resource plan. These issues are less related to geomatics than to management and are only briefly touched on here.

From the needs analysis and the situation report one can derive a series of objectives. These objectives must be linked to the beneficiaries and the deliverables, some of which are noted above. Each objective should have associated with it a beneficiary and a deliverable. Furthermore, if a deliverable does not have a beneficiary, then there is likely a good reason to remove it from the deliverable list. In one project in which we worked there were ten objectives, four beneficiaries, ten deliverables to the primary client, and 14 to the secondary client. Furthermore, management and training as well as obtaining core funding from the recipient government are key factors in making the program successful and sustainable in the developmental context. In addition to there being internal consistency within the project, there must also be an assessment of how the various objectives relate to national policy, institutional capacity as determined during the in-country mission, and potential needs of international organizations and other donors.

One of the key issues in any development activity is ensuring that the program is sustainable. To do this, as noted above, the developing country client must commit to the work. To ensure that this occurs, we recommend that the obligations of the various parties – clients, aid agencies, executing agencies, recipient agencies, other donors, are clearly specified and tied to sustainability.

Conclusion

We have outlined the importance of geomatics or geospatial informationand tools in development. We have indicated how one should plan the initial data collection and planning stages aimed at developing a program of national geomatics infrastructure building in either a post conflict setting or for modernization. Key steps are outlined, key decision points are reviewed, and the process is defined using the ‘real world’ example of Mozambique. While there are obviously a number of differences from one project to another, there are also a number of common approaches to geomatics program development that our experience suggests should be followed to make a project more likely to succeed.

One very important issue in the derivation of benefits and specification of needs is serendipity. In Bangladesh where one of the authors was recently reviewing a geomatics activity for the UNDP, it was found that there were very positive but unintended results – an agriculturally oriented geospatial data base had a much more direct and much more important application in flood response than was originally envisioned. In the Bangladesh case, those involved with the database remained flexible and looked beyond traditional applications to contribute to the solution of other problems. Needs should be considered and defined with an approach that remains flexible and able to deliver information as and when needed, particularly in support of key national priorities.

References

1. Eaton, R., C. Horwood, and N. Niland (1998) The Development of Indigenous Mine Action Capacities United Nations Dept. of Humanitarian Affairs, New York.
2. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (1992) Catalogue of Topographic, Thematic and Special Maps and Aerial Photographs and satellite Data 1991. DNFFB, FAO.MOZ/86/003
3. Kalensky, Z.D. and J.S. Latham (June 1998) Establishment of Environmental Information Systems (EIS) In Developing Countries 10th International Conference on Geomatics, Ottawa.
4. National Demining Commission (1998) Bulletin # 7. September. Bulletin #6. May

Dr. R.A. Ryerson is a Fellow of the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, a Certified Mapping Scientist, and Professional Agrologist. Ryerson may be reached at the company’s eastern Canadian office: Ryerson, Batterham and Associates, Ltd., Box 1125, Manotick, Ontario K4M 1A9 CANADA bryerson@kim-geomatics.com.

Robert Batterham is a Canada Lands Surveyor and management consultant in geomatics. Batterham may be reached at the western Canadian office: Ryerson, Batterham and Associates, Ltd., Suite 902-535 Nicola Street, Vancouver, B.C. V6G 3G3 CANADA rbat@fox.nstn.ca

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