Introduction to Special Issue
Native American uses of Geospatial Technology
Kyle R. Bohnenstiehl, Director, Office of Land Information Systems, The Hopi
Tribe
Phillip Johnson Tuwaletstiwa (Hopi), Captain (Retired) NOAA, National Geodetic
Survey
Uses of Geospatial Technology by Tribal Government
This issue of PE&RS presents a variety of papers from the perspective of
Native Americans, consultants and academics working with tribes, and Bureau
of Indian Affairs personnel. Tribal governments were relatively late adopters
of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS),
and particularly remote sensing technology because of barriers in education
and, more importantly, cost. Now, almost all tribes in the United States have
some form of a GIS in their government and many tribes use GPS for mapping
and surveying. However, the use of remote sensing still lags and it is our
hope that readers of this issue will begin to appreciate this fact and reach
out to tribes more in their work and research. There is a large market for
the industry to reach here, from sales of satellite imagery to the production
of digital orthophotos in support of GIS databases. Researchers should actively
seek out tribes as they make excellent partners on government funded research
initiatives, given the knowledge of the resources that exist on these large
tracts of land under the control of a Native Sovereign Nation. Furthermore,
there is an entire user group that is very eager to learn about the potential
of remote sensing. Our primary objective with this issue was to make PE&RS
readers aware of some of the accomplishments on reservation lands and the types
of research projects being undertaken. It is our desire that ASPRS members
will make an effort to reach out to Indian tribes and share some of their knowledge
with this user group. Tribes have a tremendous amount of local knowledge about
land management that can be transferred back to researchers in our field and
unique opportunities for cooperation exist.
Early Adoption of GIS by Tribes
The BIA Geographic Data Center in Denver, Colorado was the original catalyst
for Tribal GIS and mapping efforts. This group prepared many of the base
layers for all federally recognized Indian tribes and made data information
available in ARC/INFO format to tribal governments. They also provided access
to ArcInfo through a dialup connection where users could access data and
perform analysis. However, early efforts to disseminate both the data and
the technology were hampered by the need for UNIX-based computers and the
steep learning curve of the earlier version of the software. An effort to
provide education to tribal leaders about GIS was very effective and the
training courses they offered nurtured an entire generation of GIS users
out on reservation lands. Not until the early-1990s did GIS begin to develop
into a useful tool for tribal governments. The advent of faster computers,
combined with PC ARC/INFO, GRASS, and ATLAS GIS software packages, allowed
for individual departments such as Planning and Water Resources to create
in-house GIS databases. Limitations on map plotting, digitizing, and overall
ease of use restricted such to tribes willing to invest significant resources.
Typically, tribes that had casinos or that were involved in extractive industries
such as coal mining or petroleum production were the only groups that could
afford the technology. For many tribes, the motivation for utilizing GIS
during this early adoption phase was to document and map cultural and water
resources. Thus far, there was very little use of satellite or aerial imagery
in these systems.
The Advent of Desktop GIS
In the latter half of the 1990s we witnessed a revolution in the power of personal
computers and GIS software. ArcView and similar programs allowed any user
with a Pentium class PC to access and manipulate large databases with ease.
GIS programs within tribes began to grow and proliferate. The BIA GDSC continued
to offer valuable training but budget cuts limited their ability to create
new datasets and maintain existing ones.
Therefore, it became imperative that tribes develop greater in-house capability. One problem that emerged during this time was the fragmentation of Tribal GIS assets into individual departments which often duplicated efforts. During this time, many tribes adopted the use of GPS technology as a tool to create new data layers. One must consider that Indian reservations are generally large areas of land, up to 20 million acres in some cases, so the use of GPS is prudent and cost effective. By combining accurate, field-based data collected with GPS, legacy BIA datasets and DRG’s, DEM’s and DOQQ’s provided by the USGS, tribes were well on their way to having functional and useful GIS programs. However, it is important to note that the use of remotely sensed imagery was still lacking in most cases. Another apparent problem was the shortage of qualified tribal members to manage and run large GIS databases. While many tribal employees were qualified in the areas of natural resources management, very few had been exposed to formal GIS education or training in a formal setting. This fact left tribes vulnerable to turnover of their non-native employees, which is something that all sectors in our industry must deal with.
Overall, this period of time built support within tribal government to expend larger and larger amounts of money on developing and furthering these Geographic Information Systems. ESRI’s Conservation GIS program allowed many tribes to obtain free ESRI software and training to grow their operations. Also, a new organization came into existence, the Intertribal GIS Council, which serves its member tribes as a mouthpiece for advocating tribal GIS programs through an annual conference and training programs.
Contemporary Tribal Land Information Systems
As the number of users within tribal governments grew, the demand for an enterprise-wide
Land Information System (LIS) grew. The concept here is to centralize the
tribe’s database into one place in a common projection and datum with updates
and revisions handled out of a clearinghouse. Also, data security is handled
better through the central data warehouse concept. Most tribal governments
now have Local Area Networks (LAN) that allow data to be shared easily among
users. As tribes upgraded their systems with newer software and more powerful
computers, it was only logical that tribes add new services to their clients.
This includes the in-house capability to produce digital orthophotos, conduct
high accuracy geodetic grade GPS surveys, and, in some cases, the ability
to order, process and use satellite imagery. Many federal programs, most
notably the Environmental Protection Agency and Bureau of Reclamation, have
provided millions of dollars to help tribes start these types of programs
with equipment purchases and training.
As is the case in any organization, the recruitment of qualified people is of paramount importance to tribal LIS operations and in many operations non-native personnel serve in managerial roles; although this is changing. The future of tribal geospatial technology lies in developing an integrated LIS, housed in one department with a staff of qualified surveyors, GIS, GPS and photogrammetric technicians, that incorporates satellite imagery, and is funded entirely with tribal money (so as to avoid any Freedom of Information Act issues).
Uses of Tribal Land Information Systems
In our experiences working with tribes, there are a number of recurring uses
of GIS, GPS and remote sensing technology. GIS databases are used to record
information about cultural resources such as traditional gathering areas,
ceremonial trails, shrines, and burials. This information is often confidential
and/or sacred and therefore requires careful consideration about its place
in a LIS. If the data are too controversial and if the safety of the knowledge
cannot be guaranteed, it may be best not to include it in the LIS database.
Water resources data collected in support of litigation or wetlands monitoring
and for inventory purposes are the best types of data to get started with
as they have visible and immediate benefits. Grazing conditions and vegetation
transects are easy to record using a GIS and provide valuable long-term records
about resource conditions. Tribal sovereignty and self-determination can
be supported by mapping reservation boundaries, allotments, and leases. It
is also important to let others know where these boundaries are and it is
advantageous to do this work in conjunction with the Bureau of Land Management.
An LIS can be used to manage traditional and non-traditional Indian villages (like any municipal GIS) and would include information relating to infrastructure such as roads and trails, utility lines and poles, building footprints, and other infrastructure, along with orthophotography.
Many tribes have invested in resource and survey-grade GPS systems to enable them to survey and map with a high degree of precision in isolated, rugged areas. The more advanced users have densified their network of control points using the existing National Geodetic Survey National Spatial Reference System. This allows for aerial control surveys, cadastral surveys, and other precision surveys to be based on a single, national spatial framework.
However, it is the use of remote sensing tools and technology that holds the single greatest promise to tribes. Many reservations cover large areas of land and there is no method better suited to collecting natural resource information at a cost that is affordable. Many tribal GIS users are aware of the potential of remote sensing, but there is a major obstacle to its use because of a lack of training appropriate to tribes. Taking raw imagery from a CD-ROM and converting it into information that can be used by a tribal council to enact ordinances and make decisions is a daunting task. While NASA and other federal agencies are attempting to bridge this knowledge gap, we have yet to see a clearly defined program of education, training, data accessibility, and long term commitment that will enable tribes to become self-sufficient in the processing and analysis of satellite data.
Tribes have long been users of aerial photography and there is an upsurge in the use of digital orthophotos for mapping and contour generation applications. The key is to make this technology more affordable to tribes, both in time and money, by encouraging the use of new digital metric cameras, airborne GPS, Inertial Measurement Units, and softcopy photogrammetry tools. Given the large, often inaccessible areas on reservations, it is imperative to utilize these tools to make orthophoto production more commonplace.
In the area of remote sensing, the ability to create detailed maps of forest and rangeland resources is of particular value because these resources have been held sacred by tribes for centuries. Outbreaks of disease and pests can be mapped in forests using remote sensing. This is a tool that tribes want and need. Range, vegetation and grazing condition indices for cattle, sheep and wildlife management purposes is a product that can be produced from remotely sensed imagery. The challenge lies in getting this technology into the hands of tribal members so that they can use it to further sovereignty and self-determination.
It is with great pleasure that we present the five articles in this issue. We feel that each article provides a unique insight into the ways that tribes can use this technology in a wise and sustainable manner. Balancing cultural issues with the adoption of new technology is an issue that tribal people deal with continually. Tribes have always been adopters of technology, from their use of fire and spears, to tractors and computers, Native Americans change in carefully planned ways to survive.
Summary of the Contents in this Special Issue
Using Geospatial Technologies to Enhance and Sustain Resource Planning
on Native Lands, examines some of the pertinent and controversial
issues of the use of GIS, GPS and remote sensing on tribal lands. The expert
opinions of the authors set the stage for how we can examine the following
articles.
Mapping Blackfeet Indian Reservation Irrigation Systems with GPS and GIS, describes an appropriate and effective combination of GIS and GPS to manage a complex network of irrigation canals. The easy-to-use ArcView interface allows tribal government employees and the BIA to view and query attributes about the canals, and because they were collected in the field, there is a high level of confidence about the spatial and attribute accuracy.
Riparian Vegetation Mapping and Image Processing Techniques, Hopi Indian Reservation, Arizona, uses 15-channel airborne, multispectral ATLAS images, Color Infrared Digital Orthophotography, and intensive field mapping coupled with GPS and vegetation transects to create a spatially accurate database that can be used for long-term monitoring projects of native and non-native vegetation.
Remote Sensing Analysis of Wild Rice Production Using Landsat 7 for the Leech Lake Band of Chippewa in Minnesota, utilizes imagery to document crop losses and manage crop production. This paper is a good example of how imagery can be used by tribes to manage natural resources in a more effective way.
Native American Remote Sensing Distance Education Prototype (NARSDEP), illustrates how important education and training is to tribal members who generally live in isolated and underdeveloped parts of the country. The use of two-way satellite interconnectivity will allow this model to be used in other countries eventually and provides a good model for bandwidth intensive distance learning.
Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks are extended to all of the authors, reviewers, and
supporters of this special issue. Without Stan Morain’s vision for
the issue and concern for including Native American geospatial users,
present and future, in our profession, none of this would have been
possible. Jim Case and Kim Tilley at PE&RS provided tireless
dedication to producing the quality articles and layouts you see
here. Garold Koruh and Betty Poley of the Hopi Tribe, with Bart Matthews,
Layton Hobbs and the staff at Bohannon-Huston Engineering have provided
us with a first rate cover image of Pueblo Bonito at Chaco Canyon,
NM.
| Top | Home |