PE&RS October 2003

Peer-Reviewed Articles

1109 The National Map – From Geography to Mapping and Back Again
John A. Kelmelis, Mark L. DeMulder, Charles E. Ogrosky, Nicholas J. VanDriel, and Barbara J. Ryan

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When the means of production for national base mapping were capital intensive, required large production facilities, and had ill-defined markets, Federal Government mapping agencies were the primary providers of the spatial data needed for economic development, environmental management, and national defense. With desktop geographic information systems now ubiquitous, source data available as a commodity from private industry, and the realization that many complex problems faced by society need far more and different kinds of spatial data for their solutions, national mapping organizations must realign their business strategies to meet growing demand and anticipate the needs of a rapidly changing geographic information environment. The National Map of the United States builds on a sound historic foundation of describing and monitoring the land surface and adds a focused effort to produce improved understanding, modeling, and prediction of land-surface change. These added dimensions bring to bear a broader spectrum of geographic science to address extant and emerging issues. Within the overarching construct of The National Map, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is making a transition from data collector to guarantor of national data completeness; from producing paper maps to supporting an online, seamless, integrated database; and from simply describing the Nation's landscape to linking these descriptions with increased scientific understanding. Implementing the full spectrum of geographic science addresses a myriad of public policy issues, including land and natural resource management, recreation, urban growth, human health, and emergency planning, response, and recovery. Neither these issues nor the science and technologies needed to deal with them are static. A robust research agenda is needed to understand these changes and realize The National Map vision. Initial successes have been achieved. These accomplishments demonstrate the utility of The National Map to the Nation and give confidence in evolving its future applications.

1119 Partnering for the People: Improving the U.S. Census Bureau’s MAF/TIGER Database
Frederick R. Broome and Leslie S. Godwin

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During the past few years, the term "partnership" has been elevated in the Federal government to the state of an integral business practice, and rightly so. However, some Federal agencies have been partnering successfully for many decades. Two such agencies, the Department of Commerce's U.S. Census Bureau and the Department of the Interior's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), have had partnerships that resulted in fundamental changes to the field of geographic data processing. While these agencies had cooperated successfully on projects earlier, from 1983 to 1989, they conducted a major partnership that resulted in the creation of the USGS' 1:100,000-scale Digital Line Graph (DLG) and the Census Bureau's Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER) database. These datasets changed not only Federal geographic data processing practices but also set the course for future geographic data processing in state, local, and tribal governments, as well as in academia and private industry.

Now, both agencies have embarked on ambitious programs to improve and evolve their datasets to meet more demanding Federal and other needs for the coming decades. The Census Bureau is improving its combined Master Address File (MAF) and TIGER database through an effort known as the MAF/TIGER Accuracy Improvement Project (MTAIP). Simultaneously, the USGS is undertaking the creation of The National Map, the initial foundation of which is existing datasets such as the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD). Although each agency's program objectives are unique to their respective missions, the products of their labors are, once again, complementary. Given their history of partnership, it was logical for the Census Bureau and the USGS to again share risks and results. Commonalities between their respective databases and missions have been identified and an effort launched to reduce redundancy in data collection and preparation, while still assuring the objectives of the resulting databases are achieved and meet the overarching objectives of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI).

1127 Digital Coast and The National Map: A Seamless Cooperative
Margaret A. Davidson and Anne Hale Miglarese

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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has readily accepted the challenge of championing the Coastal National Spatial Data Infrastructure, the "framework" spatial information of the coastal resource management community. This effort is described as the Digital Coast. The Digital Coast information framework includes a seamless transition between land and sea with regard to elevation and bathymetry. As with all information initiatives, it is not enough just to build the information described. This information must be built to national standards to be of greatest utility to the user and to avoid needless duplication of effort. Additionally, the data must be well documented and readily available to professional coastal resource managers and average citizens alike. The Digital Coast must be available via the Internet, and the user community must have the knowledge necessary to fully utilize and extend the value of the information to their unique applications. The initiative calls together the Department of Commerce's (DOC) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and other Federal agencies to work with the states, the private sector, and academia to create a seamless Digital Coast. The initiative will work to organize these spatial data using the protocols described by Presidential Executive Order 12906 and by using procedures endorsed by the Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC). Digital Coast is the coastal and ocean component of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and, as such, will directly contribute to the development of The National Map.

1133 The Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Multi-Hazard Flood Map Modernization and The National Map
Anthony S. Lowe

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The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is embarking on an ambitious effort to modernize the Nation's flood maps and develop a framework for the distribution of geospatial data of all hazards in the process. FEMA intends to focus on developing the flood theme, using existing base maps where they are available, and coordinating and partnering with other Federal, state and local agencies on any digital elevation data acquisition necessary for flood data development. As the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and its partners are implementing The National Map, they will develop a similar framework. Thus, there is a great opportunity to collaborate on data collection efforts. Both initiatives address partnerships among all levels of government to develop, enhance, and share geospatial data. Collaboration on these projects will also demonstrate the potential of these partnerships not only for traditional applications, but for evolving homeland security missions as well.

1137 National Geospatial Preparedness for All-Hazard Emergency Management
Barry R. Napier

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The emergency management and response mission area is an important pillar of homeland security that could be strengthened through the improved application of geospatial information, tools, and technologies. In times of crisis, first responders of all disciplines rely on continuous streams of detailed and updated information to effectively respond to disasters and speed recovery. In particular, geospatial information facilitates informed decisions and improves communication throughout the emergency response community. While geospatial information and technologies are integrated into the emergency response mechanisms in a number of cities, counties, and states, much work remains to be done to improve the overall status of national preparedness. For our Nation to improve geospatial capabilities in support of emergency preparedness and homeland security, Federal and other levels of government need to coordinate their efforts and improve access to information. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) established the Interagency Geospatial Preparedness Team (IGPT) to facilitate these efforts. The U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) The National Map will be a key enabler of national geospatial preparedness.

1141 Mapping Delaware through Partnerships
Michael B. Mahaffie

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Completing Delaware's Spatial Data Framework and building the Data Mapping Integration Laboratory (DataMIL) to serve it on the Web required partnerships and teamwork built through shared efforts that meet collective goals. Delaware's small size made it easier to collect the data needed to create a seamless, statewide digital map. It also made it possible to forge a tight-knit team from all levels of government to integrate, improve, and share data. If The National Map is going to work, it will be built up from the local level to create an integrated national collection of spatial data. That will require strong local teams, working together in regional groups across political boundaries, to create parts of what will be brought together into a whole by a national team of partners from all levels of government and the private sector. This is a complex institutional challenge. The National Map cannot be completed by any one agency or level of government. It can only be accomplished through partnerships and teamwork, built on shared efforts and success.

1147 The National Map “of Texas” – An Example of Statewide Implementation
Drew Decker

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Citizens have historically relied on many different types of paper maps such as U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps, highway maps, and flood plain maps for information about their surroundings. These maps have been produced through traditional mapping and printing processes, however, and are difficult and expensive to update, especially for coverages over large areas. The Texas Natural Resources Information System (TNRIS), a division of the Texas Water Development Board, is charged with producing, archiving, updating, and distributing Texas base maps. To fulfill this responsibility, TNRIS is taking a new and more efficient approach based on the USGS National Map concept.

At the heart of The National Map "of Texas" is the concept that different digital map themes can be combined to make new mapping products. Texas has digital transportation, hypsography, aerial photography, hydrography, boundaries, soils, and other datasets that can be overlaid digitally to create both standard and custom maps. Because maps can be built using solely digital sources, there are many input options and many forms of output, e.g., printed maps, files, and Internet displays.

Texas is building a new statewide mapping product based on The National Map principles that complements USGS 1:24,000-scale topographic maps. While these new maps share the same 7.5-minute footprint and similar appearance, they will be comprised solely of digital base-map themes. This will provide a proof of concept of The National Map vision, a test bed for Web mapping tools, and an assessment of functions that are necessary for the nationwide implementation of The National Map.

The mechanisms for operating The National Map (i.e., user interfaces, software, and tools) will continue to evolve. However, the aim will not change. The National Map will provide users as many options as possible for selecting the input data, scale, and output of maps. These mechanisms must be developed while ensuring that digital data production and updates and the associated business partnerships are in place as the other two pillars of The National Map implementation.

1155 A Data Provider’s View of The National Map
Donald Cooke

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For over a century, our national map consisted of the thousands of paper topographic quadrangle maps created and maintained by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) at scales ranging from 1:250,000 to 1:24,000. As long as the Nation's spatial data were embodied in paper maps, the linkage between private sector data providers and the USGS was tenuous: the USGS contracted for mapping services and map publishers might use quadrangle maps as the basis for a commercial map, but the relationship rarely went further.

As the computer age impinged on mapping of the Nation, the linkage between public and private mapping grew tighter. Private companies became important resources in public map database compilation, and public digital maps seeded new private data products.

The National Map vision promulgated in 2001 by the USGS opens new avenues for public-private collaboration on this vital resource. Commercial data providers can work with government at all levels to their mutual benefit to achieve The National Map vision.

1159 GIS: Infrastructure Underpinnings for The National Map
Jack Dangermond and R. Clint Brown

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The National Map represents an overwhelming mission to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), a mission that has become even more urgent in recent months. Conceptually, The National Map is a virtually continuous database built by many participants to cover our country. This is a highly innovative vision and is founded upon the collective participation of numerous Federal, state, and local government agencies as well as private industry organizations. The National Map mission can only be accomplished through collaboration of many organizations and effective use of geographic information systems (GIS).

GIS technology will serve as the foundation for The National Map by providing a framework and mechanism for many organizations to work in concert. Building The National Map depends upon the presence of a strong, open, interoperable GIS infrastructure as well as key GIS technologies and methodologies.

1165 The Effect of Governmental Geospatial Data Programs and Policy on Innovation in the Private Sector
David M. DeLorme and James G. Peterson

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The essence of the U.S. Geological Survey's vision for The National Map has existed for many years, in substance if not in form. The National Map has enormous potential for fostering innovation in the private sector and, in return, can greatly benefit from such innovation. As part of the Nation's geospatial data industry, the DeLorme Publishing Company competes, in part, in a marketplace built largely upon data produced and made available by the USGS and other governmental agencies. These data, and this marketplace, have benefited citizens through a wide array of software, data, services, and products. The National Map, as proposed by the USGS, has the potential for further stimulating this marketplace, thereby resulting in more and better geospatial products, ultimately further benefiting citizens. Perspectives on The National Map from the private sector-positive, negative, and cautionary-contribute to a better understanding and evolution of this initiative.

1169 Building the National GeoBase for Canada
Bob D. Johnson and Jasdev Singh

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The changes being brought about by expanding mapping and GIS technology and shrinking resources for the provision of geospatial data are being felt by all governments. Topographic data residing in distributed topographic databases of various agencies across Canada will shortly be made available through Internet Web Mapping technology. The new GeoBase portal will offer one-stop shopping for a variety of digital topographic base data. Partnerships have been concluded between Federal, Provincial, and Territorial Governments in order to make base data available to Canadian users. GeoBase is an out-growth of GeoConnections, a federal program to promote the use and accessibility of Canadian geospatial data on-line.

1175 A New Geographic Information Framework for Great Britain
Keith J. Murray and Duncan Shiell

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The knowledge economy, enabled by easier and faster electronic processing, has brought geography to the fore in the minds of a wide variety of users, from politicians, government, and the commercial sector and to the citizen. This appears to be a make or break moment for national mapping agencies involved in mapping and geography. Geographic information, more than mapping, is now in demand. This information needs to fulfill specific roles and needs for the people who use it, often by integrating with all kinds of existing information, such as client inventories, property information, and consumer services for "where is my nearest?"

The Ordnance Survey (OS) embarked on a program to redevelop the existing National Topographic Database in the late 1990s and this is now being transformed with the release of the OS MasterMap based on the Digital National Framework, which is a conceptual model and standards for integrating geographic information.

There are several parallels with The National Map being developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Both initiatives aim to provide national, complete, and maintained geo-referencing frameworks that can unite data from all kinds of organizations through the common denominator: location. The initiatives each aim to offer easy access to users who can choose just those geographic areas and layers of information they require for their application. There are also differences in the way the data will be maintained and how the supporting business models operate. For example, in Great Britain, the user pays full data licence costs while, in the United States, data are provided at the cost of dissemination.

It remains to be seen just how successful these initiatives will be in the longer term and it is likely that the strategies will have to evolve. One thing is clear. Without a modern national georeferencing infrastructure and the ability to effortlessly join up all kinds of disparate geographies, our national economies will be weaker and much duplication and fragmentation will be evident. In Great Britain we encountered such a situation in the 1920s and 30s, which led to a fundamental review and established the foundations for the remi and type of organization the Ordnance Survey is today. As national mapping organizations worldwide redefine themselves in an e-business environment, the future today looks to be challenging but is also offering exciting opportunities. We can learn a lot from each other.

1183 Spatially Enabling Australia through Collaboration and Innovation
Dan L. Paull and Marni J. Bower

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Everything happens somewhere. As a consequence, location-based information relating to people, activities, and resources is critical to informed decision making within both the private and public sectors. It therefore stands to reason that information required to establish the geospatial framework in which all location-based information exists must be readily available to those who make decisions. This need for a consistent, seamless, and accessible framework of geospatial information is internationally recognized. Within the United States it will be the U.S. Geological Survey's The National Map initiative that provides the vehicle to achieve this result. Within Australia this outcome has been achieved through Public Sector Mapping Agencies (PSMA) Australia Limited. While both the U.S. and Australia acknowledge and pursue ultimately the same goal-to deliver a national geospatial framework-the mechanism that has evolved in Australia over the last decade stands out because of both its unique model and continuing success.